Young adults are the age group experiencing the most severe consequences of limited education, because they are not yet established in the workforce and have only their education and degrees as credentials. Over the past two decades, completing high school and pursuing college training have increasingly become prerequisites for entering the workforce successfully and living an independent, productive life.
Throughout their K-12 careers, one-quarter to one-third of today's twenty to thirty year olds performed below minimum education standards. Even more African-American students fell short of these standards.
% of Young Adults 20 Years Old in 1999
Not Previously Meeting Standards
| Total | White Male | White Female | African American & Other Male | African American & Other Female | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Readiness (1985) | 26% | 19% | 14% | 39% | 33% |
| 8th Grade (1993) | |||||
| Math | 30% | 19% | 19% | 46% | 45% |
| Reading | 24% | 19% | 13% | 40% | 31% |
| Exit Exam (1995) 1st Attempt | 34% | 23% | 20% | 58% | 51% |
| Dropouts by 12th grade (1995-98) | 28% | 30% | 24% | 36% | 22% |
*Dropouts by grade 12 are 28%; no race/sex breakout is available for the 8th to graduation dropout rate of 30%.
Source: S.C. Department of Education.
Overall, more than 30% of students do not graduate from high school. Girls are most likely to graduate, but a quarter of both African-American and White females fail to graduate. Among boys, roughly 30% of Whites and 35% or more of African-Americans do not graduate. Many quit school because of academic deficiencies such as insufficient course credits or inability to pass the exit exam. Others leave to work, to raise a family, or simply to escape from the routine of school for new experiences. Although graduation rates have increased dramatically since WWII, each decade of dropouts still leaves over 100,000 young adults without a high school diploma. The 1990 Census recorded 783,610 South Carolinians over age 18 without a high school diploma, including half a million in the prime working ages 18-59.
% Not Completing High School
Source: 1940 to 1990 U.S. Censuses.
Many persons participate in adult literacy and secondary education courses, but too few complete their degrees. The average adult education student in South Carolina attends only about 50 hours of class per year. In 1998/99, over 121,000 persons enrolled in adult education courses, but only 11,090 received adult education high school diplomas or GEDs. Of those enrolled, 36,622 were participating in Adult Basic Education programs, 37,374 were seeking a diploma or GED, 30,864 were taking instructional courses for personal reasons other than seeking an academic certificate, and the remainder were in workplace literacy and skills programs. Of those enrolled, 19% were White males, 28% White females, 21% African-American males, 26% African-American females, and 6% Others. In addition there are 21,524 workplace students in industry and business who are upgrading their skills in literacy, computers, and other competencies. Slightly more than 2 in 5 recent dropouts earned a high school diploma or GED, but decidedly fewer older dropouts gained their degrees. Roughly 6 of every 10 adult education participants are below age 30. The result is reflected in the 1990 Census data on school completion of young adults.
By the end of young adulthood, approximately 14% of White females, 18% of White males, 24% of African-American females, and 30% of African-American males are competing in life without a high school credential. They are not alone. The 2000 Census will record roughly 400,000 persons in the prime working ages 18-59 who have not completed a high school diploma or a GED.
Adults Not Completing High School
Note: High school completion includes GEDs. Shown as % of age/race group.
Source: 1990 U.S. Census Tape STF4, Table PB45.
The adult education system is poorly funded and must work hard to do much with little. While K-12 education receives an average of $3,456 per student in state and federal funds and spends $5,800 from all sources for each student, adult education receives $171 per student in state and federal funds. The adult education teaching force of over 3,000 has only 224 full-time teachers, with the preponderance of the instructional staff being either part-time or volunteers.
The basic skills attainment of adult education completers is often too low to qualify for many jobs paying good wages. Nationally, the average adult basic education student progressed in reading from the 6.1 grade level to 7.4, while adult secondary students went from the 8.5 grade level to 9.3. These low reading levels, typically combined with unaddressed deficiencies in math as bad or even worse than those in reading, are not sufficient for many desirable jobs.
Education of Young Adults up to High School Diploma in 1990
| Highest Level of Education Completed | Age 18-24 | Age 25-34 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | WM | WF | AA&OM | AA&OF | Total | WM | WF | AA&OM | AA&OF | |
| Less than 9th | 2% | 2% | 2% | 3% | 2% | 3% | 3% | 2% | 4% | 3% |
| 9th-12th, No Diploma | 22% | 21% | 17% | 34% | 25% | 16% | 15% | 12% | 26% | 21% |
| HS Diploma or GED | 34% | 34% | 31% | 40% | 38% | 33% | 30% | 30% | 43% | 38% |
Note: Percentages are for high school graduation or less; percentages for college and graduate school reported in the section on College Performance must be added to reach 100%.
Source: 1990 U.S. Census.
The challenges of transitioning into productive work can be reduced through effective training, but too few young adults receive such assistance, especially the least educated who are the most in need. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth found that over a six year period fewer than 2 in 5 young adults (38%) received training of any kind and only 24% from their employers. The survey also indicated that only 19% of dropouts received any training at all, 9% from their employers. In comparison, half of college graduates received some training, 35% from their employers. Furthermore, the Current Population Survey indicated that among 18-29 year old young adults, 15% had received informal on-the-job training, 12% formal training, 5% technical training, and 2% basic skills training in reading, writing, and math, since being hired by their current employer. Those who had been to college received far more formal training and technical training, while school dropouts obtained very little training.
Even basic skills training was provided by employers more frequently to college graduates (4%) than dropouts (2%) or high school graduates (3%) during ages 18-34. As a result of training provided by sources other than the employer, 10% of dropouts ages 18-34 versus 9% of college graduates had obtained basic skills training. With all types of employer-provided training going more often to the best educated employees, the trend of the market place to reward college-trained workers was reinforced rather than mitigated.
Employment training programs in South Carolina serve many adults but usually with only moderate intensity. In FY99, Vocational Rehabilitation served 12,582 disabled persons ages 18-29. The Jobs Training Partnership Act (JTPA) served 4,404 persons ages 18 to 29 during FY98. The National JTPA Study found that the program increased wages by 7-8% and employment by 2% for women and 5% for men. These minimal results are explained in part by the limited duration of the training, which at 400 to 1,000 hours is less than 5% of the time participants had already spent in their K-12 education. The 50-60 hours of class per year in adult education would be well below 1% of a person's academic career.
The academic competency of young adults is a serious problem. S.C. Chamber of Commerce surveys found that labor force entrants have major deficiencies in reading, math, problem-solving, reasoning, and knowing how to learn, as well as in basic character, work habits, and interpersonal skills. The National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) results suggest that 13-14% of young adults in South Carolina are in the lowest of five literacy levels and almost half (44-48%) are in the lowest two levels. It has been estimated that the second NALS level covers grade level equivalents of 7.0 to 10.0 and that the S.C. exit exam is in the middle of this range at the 8.5 grade equivalency level. Thus the exit exam and NALS indicate that roughly 30% of young adults in South Carolina score below the 8.5 grade equivalency level in literacy. United States data from the NALS showed the following employment outcomes for persons at various literacy levels:
Economic Status of U.S. Adults by Literacy Level on NALS
(% or $ Range of Prose, Document, and Quantitative)
| Indicator | Literacy Level1 (Lowest) | Literacy Level2 | Literacy Level3 | Literacy Level4 | Literacy Level5 (Highest) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Poverty | 41-44% | 20-23% | 12% | 7-8% | 4-6% |
| Food Stamps | 17-19% | 11-13% | 6% | 3% | 1% |
| Not Employed | 60-62% | 43-45% | 30-32% | 20-22% | 14-16% |
| Median Weekly Wages | $230-244 | $274-288 | $339-350 | $462-472 | $618-681 |
| Occupation | - | - | - | - | - |
| Manager, Professional, Technician | 5-6% | 12-13% | 23-26% | 43-46% | 65-70% |
| Sales, Clerical | 15-16% | 28-30% | 33-34% | 29-30% | 19-20% |
| Craft, Service | 41-43% | 34-36% | 26-27% | 17-18% | 8-10% |
| Laborer, Assembler, Fishing, Farming | 34-37% | 23-24% | 15-16% | 7-10% | 2-5% |
| Total | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% |
Source: Irwin S. Kirsch et al, Adult Literacy in America, pp. 60-68.
Data from the 1990 Census showed that among 25-29 year olds, over 27% of high school dropouts and 15% of high school graduates had incomes below the poverty level in S.C. Therefore, the low literacy and other skills deficiencies of both dropouts and less proficient high school graduates are associated not only with poverty, but also with greater unemployment, lower wages, and less potential for career growth. Since almost half of young adults in S.C. are in the bottom two NALS levels and 30% perform below the 8.5 grade equivalency reading level, it is not surprising that much of the S.C. workforce finds its employment as basic laborers and craftworkers, which are lower paying occupations typically scoring in the lower two literacy levels of the NALS.
Persons with low literacy and other basic skills generally do not compete well in the labor market. Some indicators of this dependency are reflected in the percentages of various groups who lack a high school degree.
Young Adults Not Completing High School in S.C.
| Ages 18-24 | Ages 25-34 | |
|---|---|---|
| All Young Adults*1 | 25% | 20% |
| Not Employed*1 | 34% | 36% |
| Single Mothers Giving Birth2 | 33% | 18% |
| TANF Recipients*3 | 52% | 37% |
| Inmates4 | 86% | 67% |
1. 1990 U.S. Census.
2. 1997 Department of Health and Environmental Control Vital Statistics.
3. Department of Social Services Family Independence.
4. South Carolina Department of Corrections data as of June 30, 1998.
* Includes GEDs as high school completion.
Not only are persons lacking a high school degree more often unemployed or working for low wages, but their limited economic achievement sometimes leaves them dependent on the rest of society.
Just as too many S.C. high school students drop out of school, likewise too few who do graduate are adequately prepared for college. The percentages of seniors in 1998 who have taken the SAT were 33% of African-American males, 44% of African-American females, 51% of White males, and 65% of White females. As a percentage of their group at age 18, the SAT-takers represent 23% of African-American males, 39% of African-American females, 34% of White males, and 49% of White females. Of South Carolina students taking the SAT, 17% of African-Americans score above 500 in the verbal section and 15% in math, as compared with 54% of Whites above 500 in verbal and 52% in math. In the United States, 53% of all SAT-takers score above 500 in verbal and 54% in math. As a percentage of their age group, 22% of White 18 year olds and 5% of African-American 18 year olds in S.C. scored above 500 in verbal; 21% of White and 5% of African-American 18 year olds scored above 500 in math. Assuming that those with scores under 400 are likely to have a hard time with college, on the verbal 11% of Whites and 44% of African-Americans taking the SAT demonstrate marginal college potential; similarly in math, 13% of Whites and 47% of African-Americans scored below 400.
As a percentage of their age cohort, the freshman entering S.C. colleges in 1998 were equivalent to 31% of African-American males, 56% of African-American females, 56% of White males, and 72% of White females. The annual attainment of Bachelors degrees provides one indicator of completion. When calculated as a percentage of an age cohort, 9% of African-American males, 21% of African-American females, 29% of White males, and 39% of White females obtained a four year degree.
% of Age Cohort Achieving College Advancement in 1998
| Total | White Male | White Female | Afr. Amer. Male | Afr. Amer. Female | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taking SAT* | 42% | 34% | 49% | 23% | 39% |
| Entering freshmen | 58% | 56% | 72% | 31% | 56% |
| Associates degree* | 11%> | 10%> | 16%> | 4%< | 9%< |
| Bachelors degree* | 28% | 29% | 39% | 9% | 21% |
| Associates & Bachelors* | 39% | 39% | 55% | 13% | 30% |
*Includes out-of-state students but excludes S.C. students attending college outside S.C. The S.C. resident rates can be estimated roughly at 90% of the rates in the table, except for SAT-taking which is only for S.C. residents.
Source: College Board; Commission on Higher Education.
Although many young adults attend college for some period of time, the majority do not earn a bachelors degree (see Appendix A). Data from the 1990 Census highlight the substantial variance by race and sex in college graduation rates.
The fact that 22-23% of Whites graduated with Bachelors or higher degrees, as compared with 8% of African-American and Other males and 10% of African-American and Other females, emphasizes the serious inequities in potential for career advancement.
Males earned 2,304 associate degrees in 1997-98 with 23% in liberal arts and science general studies, 15% in engineering and related technologies, 12% in mechanics and repairs, 9% in business management and administration, 7% in health and related professions, and 6% in protective services. Females earned 3,582 associate degrees, with 31% in the health professions, 24% in liberal arts and science general studies, and 21% in business management and administration. Female students are more concentrated in business and health, while male students dominate in engineering, mechanical, and repairing fields.
Males received 6,596 bachelors degrees in 1997-98, with 25% in business, 12% in social sciences and history, 9% in engineering, and 7% in biological sciences. Females received 9,152 degrees, with 18% in education, 16% in business, 10% in health, 9% in social sciences and history, 8% in psychology, and 7% in biological sciences. Women are much more likely to obtain degrees in education, health, and psychology, while male students are more concentrated in business, engineering, and social sciences.
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